European football has seen a major rise over the past few decades. The prominence of some of top European clubs has been felt globally as is evident from the broadcasting figures and merchandise sales from around the world. However, it is important to understand how football fans across the globe have helped the rise of European football and the steps taken by major European clubs to win over the fans from different communities.

The rise of the sport in different demographics have contributed to the global presence of some major European clubs, it is however important to find out how social media, fan behavior and other elements have helped the clubs in Europe engage with global audiences.

The fans are the most important elements to understand the global presence of football and therefore, the research aims to find out the sporting and non-sporting elements that influence the fan behavior towards a football club, structural equation mediation model has been used to determine the major factors that influence the global presence of European football clubs.

According to a report by Nielsen sports (2023), majority of the viewers of European football leagues especially the English Premier League, Bundesliga and the UEFA Champions league are viewed by audiences outside Europe. Africa and Asia contribute to the major percentage of the audience that view the European Leagues. This is testament to the fact that European football has a massive global presence. It is however important to find out how the loyalty of a fan towards the club have helped the brands associated with the club to gain global prominence and trust. It is also essential to measure other factors like tradition, success and cultural impact have affected a fan’s behaviour towards their favourite club. The study aims to understand the factors that have contributed to the rising popularity of European football across the globe and thus investigating the 12^th man effect is pertinent to understanding it’s influence on the game.

The study also measures fan loyalty based on the geographical dynamics of the fans. This study analyses and measures responses from countries like Thailand, China, India, UAE and the United Kingdom. It is also interesting to note the difference between local and global fan perception between the mentioned countries and the United Kingdom, since some of the most popular teams in Europe have come out of the United Kingdom. Brand associations have been categorised to be important for a sports club in the recent years (Bauer et al., 2004; Gladden and Funk, 2002; Biscaia et al., 2016), There is still uncertainty on how to create strong brands through football clubs (Gladden and Milne, 1999; Biscaia et al., 2016). Even though some clubs have succeeded in gaining popularity, it has not always been the same with majority of the European clubs have tried to gain a foothold in such territories (Maderer et al., 2016).

The recent influx of social media and the importance of television rights have been major factors to help a brand (in this case football clubs) connect with fans across the globe. Recent studies have suggested that the presence of factors other than social media, for example, sponsorship of brands and how clubs have been retailed and merchandised over the past few years (Hamil and Chadwick, 2010; Kolyperas and Sparks, 2011; Morrow, 2003, 2006).

The study aims to understand how fans across the world have developed a relationship with the more successful European clubs and their loyalty and connection with the clubs is measured through various constructs. The constructs aim to understand fan behaviour as an individual and as a community while it also tries to decipher the impact of community development initiatives by the clubs and online presence on fan’s behaviour towards the club.

The research aims to understand the fan behavior how fans consume and perceive football across the world. According to Holt (1995), consumption is a social action and consumption objects or uses vary from person to person. Fan culture is viewed as imagined dynamic experience that shapes everyday life (Nash 2000). Consumers make choices based on the social opportunities the brand offers and the value it creates (Muniz and O’Guinn 2001).  To measure consumption in football it is important to understand factors like experience gained from an event, socializing and constructive engagement with other like-minded fans (Pons et al. 2006). Football helps shape local identity and further communicate identity across communities (Bale,1988).

The fan behavior in this study is categorized into tangibility and intangibility. According to Fillis and Mackay (2014), the tangibility of fan consumption can be measured through factors like wearing a team’s jersey, displaying club merchandise, showing support to the club from the stadium, etc. According to Lancaster (1966), consumers look to avail benefits and do not buy a product for its attributes. According to Park, Jaworski, & MacInnis(1986), there are three main types of benefits which are functional, symbolic, and experiential. According to Bauer, Sauer, and Schmitt (2004) fans typically seek to meet their experiential and symbolic needs rather than their functional needs as experiential benefits provide consumers with emotional pleasure and symbolic benefits provide a sense of self identity fulfilment.

The study further aims to understand the factors influencing the loyalty of fans of European football clubs and how fan behavior has affected the same. To further understand consumer/fan behavior, it is important to understand factors such as “scarcity” and “novelty”. According to Verhallen & Robben (1994), the value of an item increases when it is available in limited quantities. While according to Hirschman (1980), consumers aim to seek out what is new in the market. These attributes can be associated with how fans in football embrace star players that bring a sense of uniqueness.

The aim of this study is to determine, the factors that contribute to the rising popularity of European football across the globe and how fan behavior has been a major contributing factor to the growth of football. It also aims to identify the other factors that have led to rise in global fandom and the different aspects that affect fan behavior as a whole.

According to Richardson and O'dwyer (2003), authenticity is a major theme that differentiates a brand from the others, they further state that even though members of brand communities have similar behaviour, they can also identify the authenticity of a brand user, in a similar way, this study tries to identify fan behaviour towards a brand and the factors that determine the authenticity of a fan towards their favourite club/brand.

Fillis and Mackay (2014) suggests that, for some football fans their favourite club becomes an extension of their own self and that makes them engage very highly with the club, while for some fans engagement is not very essential. This theme has been taken into consideration in this study to understand how fans engage with a club and it’s community and also understands their level of allegiance to their favourite club. According to Richelieu and Pons (2006), a strong football brand is one that can draw interest on all fronts, be it an individual fan, the entire fan community or the media, this study further fails to understand the level of engagement of fans with the club on various fronts including social media. The study is based on six constructs namely Community Development, Fan Behavior- Tangible sporting affiliations, Fan Behavior- Intangible sporting affiliations, Online Presence, Community Engagement and Brand Loyalty. Out of these six first four are independent constructs whose impact on the dependent variable Community Engagement is studied. Further the impact of Community Engagement is studied on Loyalty towards Club/Brand. Subsequent paragraphs describe these independent constructs and the hypotheses thus proposed.

Effect of Community development: Research demonstrates that football-for-development programs help reduce social exclusion and promote youth engagement by providing shared spaces for interaction, education, and empowerment (Anagnostopoulos & Shilbury, 2013). Studies of English and European football clubs’ community outreach further indicate that club-led programs—such as health campaigns, educational workshops, and inclusion-focused initiatives—enhance trust and participation among marginalized groups (Walters & Chadwick, 2009). Additionally, evaluations of UEFA-affiliated community projects show that clubs function as “anchor institutions,” using their symbolic power and local presence to promote volunteering, build cross-community relationships, and strengthen civic identity (Duarte & de Mendonça, 2020). Collectively, this literature suggests that European football’s community development efforts have a measurable positive impact on community engagement. Following hypothesis is thus proposed:

H1: Community development efforts of European football clubs has a positive effect on community engagement

Effect of Tangible sporting affiliations: Tangible sporting affiliations of a fan —such as attending matches, wearing club merchandise, and participating in supporter group activities—have been found to enhance community engagement by creating shared rituals and reinforcing collective identity within European football communities. Research shows that physical fan practices strengthen social bonds among supporters and increase participation in community events organized by clubs or supporter groups (Walters & Chadwick, 2009). Studies on European football culture also indicate that visible displays of fandom, like match-day traditions or supporter group involvement, foster a sense of belonging that promotes volunteerism and local civic participation (Doidge & King, 2018). Overall, tangible forms of fan behavior contribute to stronger community connections, collective action, and heightened engagement within football-based social networks. Following hypothesis is thus proposed:

H2: Tangible sporting affiliations of a fan has a positive effect on community engagement

Effect of Intangible sporting affiliations: Intangible sporting affiliations of a fan —such as symbolic identity, emotional attachment, and a sense of belonging to a European football club—have been shown to strengthen community engagement by fostering shared identity and continuous social interaction among supporters. Strong fan identification increases participation in both online and offline communities, encouraging behaviors such as digital discussions, knowledge sharing, and collective action that reinforce social cohesion (Vale & Fernandes, 2023). Research also suggests that symbolic affiliations can build trust and solidarity among diverse supporters, helping create inclusive community networks that extend beyond match attendance (Doidge & King, 2018). Collectively, these studies show that intangible fan attachments play a significant role in enhancing community engagement. Hence, following hypothesis is proposed:

H3: Tangible sporting affiliations of a fan has a positive effect on community engagement

Effect of online presence: European football clubs’ online presence—through social media platforms, digital fan communities, and interactive content—has been shown to significantly enhance community engagement by enabling continuous communication and strengthening fans’ sense of belonging. Studies indicate that active digital strategies, such as real-time updates, behind-the-scenes content, and interactive posts, increase fan participation and foster stronger emotional connections with clubs (Parganas et al., 2015; Schivinski et al. 2016). Research also finds that online platforms encourage knowledge sharing, peer interaction, and digital community-building, ultimately expanding and deepening engagement beyond match-day settings (Vale & Fernandes, 2023). Overall, a strong digital presence allows European football clubs to cultivate active, loyal, and socially connected fan communities. Following hypothesis is thus proposed:

H4: Online Presence of European football club has a positive effect on community engagement

Effect of Community engagement: Community engagement initiatives undertaken by European football clubs—such as social responsibility programs, supporter outreach, and locally focused activities—have been found to strengthen fans’ emotional attachment and long-term brand loyalty. Research shows that when clubs actively contribute to their communities, supporters perceive them as more trustworthy and socially responsible, which enhances both attitudinal and behavioral loyalty (Walters & Chadwick, 2009). Studies on fan–club relationships also indicate that community-focused actions foster feelings of pride, identification, and reciprocity among supporters, leading to stronger commitment and sustained brand loyalty over time (Kunkel et al., 2021). Overall, community engagement serves as a key relational strategy through which European football clubs reinforce loyalty by deepening social bonds with their fan base. Following hypothesis is thus proposed:

H5: Community engagement efforts of European football clubs has a positive effect on Brand Loyalty.

The study also aims at examining whether Community engagement would mediate the relationship between the four independent constructs and brand loyalty. Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H6: Community engagement mediates the relationship between:

1. Community development
2. Tangible sporting affiliations
3. Intangible sporting affiliations
4. Online presence

The above hypotheses are summarized into a framework shown by Figure 1 which proposes to study the relationship between the above-mentioned variables and has been analysed using structural equation modelling (SEM) approach. Table 1 depicts the various items used to measure the six latent constructs.

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of the study

Table 1: Constructs of the study

This study utilizes a cross-sectional survey design to explore the intricate nuances of fan behavior and preferences concerning football club support. Employing a convenience sampling method, a meticulously crafted online questionnaire was developed, encompassing various dimensions such as demographics, direct factors like fan behavior, online presence of the club, and indirect factors such as community engagement (no. of items = 27) using a five-point Likert scale where 5 indicates a response of strongly agree and 1 indicates a response of strongly disagree. The survey aimed to collect responses from participants globally, ensuring a diverse and representative dataset. According to Nielsen sports (2023), Thailand, Malaysia and UAE have the highest percentage of fans interested in football, while China and India have the greatest number of people interested in football, therefore this study aimed to get responses from the mentioned countries and additionally data was collected from the United States of America due to the recent rise in prominence of association football in the country.

A pilot survey of 50 respondents was carried out, and based on the feedback, several questions were refined for clarity. Web link of the revised questionnaire was sent to 700 prospective respondents and produced 528 returned responses. Of these, 8 questionnaires have been eliminated because they either appeared unreliable or were incomplete. Finally, a total of 520 usable surveys provide the data for analysis. Since the study pertains to football fandom, as expected the number of male respondents is higher (454) while 57 females responded with 9 respondents not preferring to state their gender. The age distribution of the respondents is as follows: 18-24 yrs->254; 25-34 yrs->222; 35-44 -> 11 and more than 45-> 33. From country point of view the number of respondents is China-52, India- 201, Malaysia-41, Thailand-70, United Arab Emirates-44, United Kingdom-112.

The analysis for this study is multifaceted, involving both hypothesis-based confirmatory analysis techniques. The research framework is then analyzed using SPSS 29.0 and AMOS 29.0.0. Additionally, a structural equation mediation model would be employed to comprehensively explore the impact of a multitude of factors on loyalty towards a football club resulting in nuanced understanding of fan behavior, enabling valuable insights for academic discourse and strategic decision-making within the realm of football club management and marketing.

4 Data analysis and findings

In this section, the reliability and validity of each construct are evaluated first. Following this, the hypotheses developed earlier are tested, and a final structural equation model is presented and examined. Reliability is assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, where a value of 0.7 or higher reflects strong reliability. Table 2 reports the mean (M), standard deviation (SD), and Cronbach’s alpha (α) for each construct.

According to the guidelines provided by Fornell and Larcker (1981) and Hair et al. (2006), construct reliability and validity require composite reliability (CR) values above 0.7 and average variance extracted (AVE) values above 0.5. As indicated in Table 2, all CR, AVE, and Cronbach’s alpha values surpass these thresholds, confirming strong reliability. The correlation coefficients for all six constructs are presented in Table 3.

Table 2 Construct reliability and validity statistics of variables in the study

Table 3: Correlation Statistics of the constructs Pearson Correlation

Notes: N = 520. Italicized figures represent square root AVE. **p<0.001

In the subsequent stage, structural equation modelling (SEM) was employed to examine the hypothesized relationships among the study constructs, as illustrated in Figure 2. The adequacy of the structural model was evaluated using multiple goodness-of-fit indices, following widely accepted recommendations in the SEM literature. Specifically, model fit was assessed using the chi-square to degrees of freedom ratio (χ²/df), the Tucker–Lewis Index (TLI), the Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI), the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), and the Root-Mean-Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA).

The results of table 4 indicate that the χ²/df ratio was below the recommended threshold of 2, suggesting an acceptable level of overall model parsimony. In addition, the incremental fit indices, including the TLI and CFI, exceeded the recommended cutoff values (TLI > .90; CFI > .95), demonstrating that the proposed model provided a substantially better fit to the data compared to a null model. The absolute fit index, GFI, was also above the acceptable threshold of .80, further supporting the adequacy of the model. Finally, the RMSEA value was at or below .05, indicating a close approximation of the model to the population covariance matrix.

Collectively, these fit indices demonstrate that the proposed structural model fits the observed data well, providing empirical support for the hypothesized relationships among the constructs.

Figure 2: Structural Equation Model

Table 4: Goodness of fit-statistics for Structural equation model

Notes: N = 520; *** p < 0.001

Table 5 presents the results of the hypothesis testing examining the relationships between the independent variables (IVs) and the dependent variable (DV). The table reports the standardized regression estimates, standard errors (SE), critical ratios (CR), and corresponding p-values. The findings indicate that all hypothesized relationships were supported. Specifically, online presence exhibited a significant direct effect on community engagement.

The unstandardized path coefficients reveal that community development exerts a positive and significant effect on community engagement (β = 0.15, CR = 5.1, p < 0.001), thereby supporting H1. Additionally, both constructs namely Fan behavior-Tangible (FBT) and Fan behavior-Intangible (FBI) demonstrate significant positive relationships with community engagement, with FBT showing a path coefficient of β = 0.26 (CR = 8.6, p < 0.001) and FBI exhibiting a coefficient of β = 0.17 (CR =5.4, p < 0.001). These results provide empirical support for H2 and H3, respectively. Subsequently it can be observed from table 5 that community engagement has a very significant positive impact on brand loyalty (β = 0.98, CR = 16.9, p < 0.001). All the hypotheses are thus supported.

Table 5: Test of Hypotheses

*** p < 0.001

Mediation analysis was conducted using a bootstrapping approach implemented through the SPSS PROCESS macro (Model 4) Hayes (2013). To examine the indirect effects operating through community engagement, four separate PROCESS Model 4 analyses were performed. The indirect effects were estimated using 5,000 bootstrap samples, and statistical significance was determined based on the 95% bias-corrected confidence intervals (CIs). An indirect effect was considered significant when its confidence interval did not include zero.

The results of the mediation analysis are presented in Table 6. The findings indicate that the indirect effects of the independent constructs—community development (CD), fan behavior–tangible (FBT), fan behavior–intangible (FBI), and online presence (OP)—on brand loyalty through community engagement were positive and statistically significant. Specifically, the indirect effect was IE = 0.26 (SE = 0.02), with a 95% CI ranging from 0.20 to 0.31, which did not include zero. Similar patterns were observed for hypotheses H6b, H6c, and H6d, as detailed in Table 6. Collectively, these results provide empirical support for Hypothesis 6 (a–d).

Table 6: Mediation Analysis

Results of data analysis suggest that online presence and proactive fan engagement play a critical role in fostering community engagement, which in turn acts as a central mechanism for enhancing brand loyalty. This supports the view that consumer attitudes and behaviors are shaped by interactive and participatory experiences, highlighting the importance of both tangible and intangible fan interactions in building strong, loyal brand communities.

Theoretically, the findings of mediation analysis also suggest that community engagement acts as a key psychological mechanism linking consumer-related constructs and online engagement to brand loyalty. This indicates that initiatives such as community development, fan engagement, and a strong online presence are effective in fostering positive community engagement, which in turn strengthen consumers’ loyalty toward the brand.

Implications for Research and Practice

Implications for Research

First, the study provides empirical support for community engagement as a mediating construct linking fan-related factors and brand loyalty, enriching existing theories of brand communities and relationship marketing in sports. Future research can build on this by examining community engagement as a moderator or testing the model across different sports and cultural contexts. This broadens the generalizability of fan behavior research beyond elite European football clubs.

Second, the integration of tangible and intangible fan behavior constructs offers a more holistic framework for understanding fandom. Researchers can extend this approach by incorporating psychological variables such as identity, emotional attachment, or social belonging. Longitudinal studies could further explore how fan loyalty evolves over time with changes in digital engagement and club performance.

Third, the study demonstrates the robustness of SEM and mediation analysis in capturing complex relationships among behavioral and psychological constructs. Future studies may apply mixed-method approaches or advanced analytics to deepen insights into fan motivations. This methodological contribution supports more rigorous and theory-driven research in sports marketing and consumer behavior.

Implications for Practice

First, football clubs should prioritize community engagement as a strategic tool to build long-term brand loyalty among global fans. Investments in fan clubs, grassroots initiatives, and inclusive community programs can strengthen emotional connections beyond match-day experiences. Such initiatives help convert casual supporters into committed brand advocates.

Second, the strong influence of online presence underscores the importance of active digital strategies. Clubs should focus on interactive content, two-way communication, and virtual fan experiences to foster participation and belonging. A well-managed digital ecosystem can significantly enhance fans’ perceived closeness to the club.

Third, the findings suggest that both tangible (merchandise, events) and intangible (emotions, identity, pride) fan experiences must be managed together. Clubs should design integrated marketing strategies that balance commercial offerings with emotional storytelling. This approach enables clubs to sustain loyalty even during periods of on-field underperformance.

Limitations and Future Scope

This study has certain limitations that should be acknowledged. The research focuses primarily on fans of successful European football clubs, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to smaller clubs, emerging leagues, or other sports contexts. The cross-sectional nature of the data restricts the ability to capture changes in fan behavior and loyalty over time. Additionally, the reliance on self-reported survey responses may introduce response bias and subjective interpretation of constructs.

Future research can address these limitations by adopting longitudinal designs to examine how community engagement and loyalty evolve across seasons and performance cycles. Expanding the sample to include fans from different sports, leagues, and cultural backgrounds would enhance external validity. Researchers may also incorporate qualitative methods or behavioral data from digital platforms to gain deeper insights into fan motivations and engagement patterns.

Further scope exists to extend the model by including additional psychological and contextual variables such as fan identity, emotional attachment, trust, or perceived authenticity of the club. The role of emerging technologies such as AI-driven fan engagement, virtual communities, and immersive digital experiences also offers promising avenues for future investigation. Such extensions would provide richer theoretical contributions and actionable insights for sports organizations and brand managers.

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