Non-managerial employees hold a pivotal role in providing superior customer service and securing customer satisfaction (Ampofo & Karatepe, 2022). These employees act as significant assets to any organization, particularly those in service industry. Employee turnover, however, is the most critical issue, especially in the hospitality sector (Orlowski et al., 2021); for a variety of reasons, including inadequate compensation, an intense workload, rigid and long working hours, and restricted career paths, employees choose to depart from the organization of their own volition. Notably, job insecurity is also a contributing factor to employees quit intentions (Goh & Baum, 2021). Consequently, hotel managers incur substantial cost associated with employee hiring, replacing, and training. Moreover, the inclination of employees to leave disrupts efficient service provision and diminishes the morale of other employees as well (Karatepe & Shahriari, 2012).

Considering the detrimental impacts of employee turnover, it becomes essential for hotel managers to allocate considerable resources to specific human resource practices that are aimed at reducing employees' willingness to quit.

One of the most impactful solutions to address this growing concern is job embeddedness (Mitchell et al., 2004; Ampofo et al., 2021).  It represents "a state of inertia or overall stuckness and reflects the reasons why someone cannot leave his or her job" (Mitchell et al., 2004). Instead of focusing on the factors that prompt employee turnover, emphasizes the strategies that encourage employees to remain within the organization. It describes the feelings of being intricately involved in a social system (Dechawatanapaisal, 2018). Notably, Several studies have identified job embeddedness as a potential technique for retaining employees (Crossley et al., 2007). It focuses on the cumulative and intangible elements that help employees integrate into their organization, as opposed to the traditional turnover model, which focuses on the factors that encourage employees' quit intentions.

Service organizations place a high value on investing in human resources through a range of strategies, such as on-the-job training, empowerment, compensation and rewards, and creating a supportive and positive work environment. However, job insecurity is still a major issue among hospitality employees (Safavi & Karatepe, 2019). Job insecurity is perceived as both an objective as well as ab subjective event, happening in the workplace. The core component of an objective conceptualization is the expectation of unemployment, arising from the prospect of job loss (De Witte & Näswall, 2003). It may arise from the temporary nature of a position. Contractual or temporary employment is often considered problematic. Temporary employment is commonly perceived to have adverse effects on employees' job commitment, work attitude, and personal well-being. While subjective conceptualization is merely the perception of job loss  (Helbling & Kanji, 2018). The subjective conceptualization gives an insight into employee well-being, which is useful especially when objective metrics produce unclear conclusions.

Job insecurity is everywhere may it be objective or subjective (Helbling & Kanji, 2018).  Job stability and predictability have been replaced as a result of corporate actions like downsizing, organizational change, and outsourcing. This perception is often associated with increased pressure to produce higher output while having fewer resources available (Etehadi & Karatepe, 2019). Additionally, due to unavoidable factors such as seasonality, economic slowdown, and/or technological advancements, ensuring job security poses a significant challenge for organizations. Viewed as a workplace stressor, job insecurity correlates with adverse impacts on health and well-being. These effects include decreased work engagement, compromised mental well-being, heightened quit intentions, reduced job satisfaction, increased burnout, diminished task and contextual performances, and elevated workload (Etehadi & Karatepe, 2019). Top of Form

While extensive literature exists highlighting the adverse effects of job insecurity, there is a discernible void in the current literature regarding its outcomes. Additionally, there is limited evidence demonstrating the adverse effects of job insecurity on both job and life satisfaction, especially within the hospitality industry (Helbling & Kanji, 2018). Most research on job embeddedness has been linked with organizational outcomes (Ampofo et al., 2018). The impact on employee well-being has not received much consideration. Additionally, the pertinent research has largely overlooked job embeddedness, which connects job insecurity to employee related outcomes (Murphy et al., 2013). Therefore, this study aims to address these voids by pioneering an investigation into how job insecurity influences life satisfaction and quit intentions of hotel employees, with job embeddedness acting as the mediating link in these associations while increasing managers' capacity for positively implementing the relationship into practice. Furthermore, this comprehension is crucial, particularly for businesses that care about employees' quality of life.

Therefore, based on these gaps the study focuses on the following research questions:

• How does perceived job insecurity influence job embeddedness among non-managerial hotel employees?
• What is the impact of job embeddedness on employees’ life satisfaction and quit intentions in the hospitality context?
• Does job embeddedness mediate the relationship between job insecurity and (a) life satisfaction and (b) quit intentions among hotel employees?

Theoretical Framework

Perceived job insecurity or apprehension regarding future job loss (Etehadi & Karatepe, 2019) alters employees’ views of corporate values and causes them to wonder if their general beliefs and career objectives align with those of the organization (Murphy et al., 2013). If their values do not align well with that of its organizations, this shakes their level of embeddedness as they tend to feel like an unsuitable “fit” in the organization. The fear of job loss also reduces their perception of “sacrifice” which eventually lowers their level of embeddedness that subsequently affects their life satisfaction. Fear of job loss certainly put life on hold resulting in a considerably lower trajectory of life satisfaction.

To develop the association between constructs, the conservation of resources theory acts as a basis. It reveals that, people are driven to attain and preserve their valuable resources (e.g., support, time, connections, perks and benefits, growth opportunities) when they feel getting endangered by actual or perceived threats of possible depletion of such resources. High levels of job security give employees the ability to attain additional resources both within the organization (promotion), and from community (support from family, socialization, recreational activities), which makes them entrenched in their jobs and enhances level of satisfaction with their lives (Ampofo et al., 2018). However, if they feel insecure with their jobs, it reduces their intentions to attain resources or to develop additional resources which reduces their intent to stay. Lack of resources reduces their general satisfaction with their lives.

Research Hypotheses

Job insecurity and job embeddedness

Job insecurity is the individual's perception of potential disruption in a job scenario can encompass anything from the permanent loss of the job to the absence of certain subjectively significant job aspects (Greenhalgh, 2011).  It is perceived as “stressful and threatening in the organization” (Safavi & Karatepe, 2019). Unsurprisingly, fear of job loss is widespread (Helbling & Kanji, 2018) and uncontrollable (De Witte et al., 2016). Employees consider job insecurity as an unavoidable "organization shock" that causes them to rethink their future career and security. As a result, employees either begin to hunt for other jobs or develop a desire to quit their current jobs so as to obtain a more secure job. The more employment options available, the easier it is for employees to transition between positions. Job insecurity also makes employees feel intimidated when they think of or experience resource loss such as “objects, personal characteristics, conditions, or energies” (Rafiq & Chin, 2019).  In this sense, job insecurity reduces an employee's job embeddedness. Additionally, (Safavi & Karatepe, 2019) in their study revealed job insecurity negatively effects job embeddedness level of non-managerial hotel employees. Similarly Elshaer & Azazz, (2022) reported that job insecurity amid Covid, negatively affected the job embeddedness of non-managerial hotel employees.

H1: Job insecurity negatively affects job embeddedness.

Job embeddedness and life satisfaction

Life satisfaction is conceptualized as an individual's cognitive evaluation of their life. Literature reveals two views on life satisfaction; top-down approach and a bottom-up approach respectively (Pavot & Diener, 2008). According to the top-down approach, stable characteristics like neuroticism and self-esteem are the probable factors for life satisfaction of employees (Rode, 2004). Contrarily, the bottom-up approach defines it as “a mix of contentment with a number of distinct but interconnected life domains including work, family, health, and leisure” (Rode, 2004). It is important for various reasons to examine this relationship. A significant research gap exists in management literature, notably the insufficient consideration given to life satisfaction. Second, from the viewpoints of stakeholders, managers bear a considerable responsibility for fostering employee well-being, with life satisfaction emerging as a crucial facet of psychological wellness. (Pavot & Diener, 2008).

H2: Job embeddedness positively affects life satisfaction.

Job embeddedness and quit intentions

Effectively managing employee turnover poses a significant challenge for managers across the globe (Santhanam (2017).  Turnover intention is viewed as a potential catalyst for resource loss, representing an impending departure from the organization (Ampofo & Karatepe, 2022). Meirun  (2018) examined how organizational and community embeddedness influence the intention to leave among rural employees in China, which reported a negative relationship between these two.. Similarly, Coetzer (2019) discovered that quit intentions were inversely associated with job embeddedness and its various sub-dimensions. Similar findings were provided by other scholars, Choi & Kim (2015), R. Singh (2019), Aboul-Dahab (2022), Fuchs, (2021).

H3: Job embeddedness negatively affects quit intentions.

Mediating effects

Employees who lose strong links and fit with their organizations tend to demonstrate a reluctance to compromise due to the insecurity of their jobs. Consequently, these employees are less motivated to attain higher levels of job embeddedness (Lee et al., 2004)  since they are do not get immersed in their jobs and social work environment, which in turn enhances their intentions to leave. According to a study by Safavi & Karatepe (2019) non-managerial hotel employees' intentions to leave their jobs are fully mediated by job insecurity. Similar findings were provided by Murphy (2013) in his study. As a result, such employees' life satisfaction also decreases.

H4: Job embeddedness affects the influence of job insecurity on (a) life satisfaction (b) quit intentions.

The research design is descriptive cum exploratory. Survey method is used with adopted instruments to gather the data from non-managerial hotel employees. The data is analysed using SmartPLS Software 4.0.9.0 version. Variance-based SEM, is employed to determine the associations among variables (Hair et al., 2017).

Research methodology

Sample and data collection

Non-managerial hotel employees employed in 4 and 5-star hotels spread in and around Chandigarh were the sources of the data for the study. Non-managerial employees from the concerned departments of food and beverage (F&B) production and services, housekeeping and front office departments were the target respondents. Data was gathered from a total of three, 4 star hotels and two, 5 star hotels.  In totality, 217 questionnaires were received, of which 201 were found useful for data analysis.

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework

Source: Author’s own compilation

Measurement scales

A questionnaire consisting of a total of 24 questions were designed to measure the constructs. A standardised scale developed by Delery & Doty (1996) was used to measure the construct job insecurity. It contained four-items. The assessment of job embeddedness utilized a seven-item scale (Crossley 2001). For quit intentions, three-items scale given by J. Singh (1996) was used. For life satisfaction, Diener (1984) five-items scale was used.

Data analysis and results

Descriptive statistics

265 questionnaires were given out, of which 201 respondents made up the entire sample. Out of the total of 201 respondents, 67 percent were men. Majority of the employees were found to be ranging between the ages of 25 to 34 years. The majority of employees had a job tenure ranging from approximately 6 to 10 years. Table 1 provides a details on the respondents' demographics:

Table 1: Frequency Distribution.

Source: Compilation of authors’ work derived from primary data.

Measurement model

To measure the reliability from both measures Composite reliability (Rho A) and Cronbach’s alpha, it must be above 0.70 as a general rule (Hair et al., 2020). All values for the constructs exceeded the threshold of 0.70, indicating strong correlations among the variables. The Average Variance Extracted (AVE) scores were utilized to assess the convergent validity of constructs, with all scores surpassing the minimum threshold of 0.5. The majority of items exhibited factor loadings surpassing the threshold limit of 0.70, though some of the items showed factor loadings below it, but were retained since their AVE scores met the requirements of 0.50 (Hult et al., 2022).

Table 2: Construct reliability and Convergent validity.

Source: Compilation of authors’ work derived from primary data.

Note/(s)- JIS: job insecurity, JEM: job embeddedness, LST: life satisfaction, QIT: quit intentions.

Table 3 displays the cross loadings of each construct relative to its items, which support the assertion that the items were heavily loaded with each of its particular constructs. It also shows that the items for each construct were less loaded in the other constructs, demonstrating that the item level discriminant validity was established.

Table 3: Cross loadings.

Source: Compilation of authors’ work derived from primary data.

Note/(s)- Factor loading for items with their constructs is shown in bold values to show the item level discriminant validity. JIS: job insecurity, JEM: job embeddedness, LST: life satisfaction, QIT: quit intentions. Structural model assessments Source: Author’s own calculations.

To demonstrate discriminant validity, bold values given are ought to be more than an inter-construct correlation (Fornell and Larker, 1981). Table 4 affirms the discriminant validity of each construct included in the study.

Table 4: Fornell Larker’s criterion for the assessment of discriminant validity.

Source: Compilation of authors’ work derived from primary data.

Note/(s)- JIS: job insecurity, JEM: job embeddedness, LST: life satisfaction, QIT: quit intentions. Structural model assessments Source: Author’s own calculations.

The new criteria as given by Henseler (2015) were also used as a new standard to determine discriminant validity among constructs. Table 5 reveal that all given values were significantly less than the 0.85 threshold limit, indicating that they all meet Henseler's standard.

Table 5: Heterotrait-Monotrait criterion for the assessment of discriminant validity.

Source: Compilation of authors’ work derived from primary data.

Note/(s)- JIS: job insecurity, JEM: job embeddedness, LST: life satisfaction, QIT: quit intentions. Structural model assessments Source: Author’s own calculations.

Structural models assessments

According to Hair, J. F., (2017), structural model evaluates the predictive significance of the dependent construct to the independent constructs. Additionally, the p values were calculated for hypotheses testing using the bootstrapping procedure with the recommendation of 10000 bootstraps (Hair et al., 2020) without modifying the sign change. Using the VIF, the issue of multicollinearity was also determined, where all values were less than the minimum limit of 3.33 (Hair, J. F., et al 2017).  This confirms that the constructs were free from the issue of multicollinearity. After examining the multi-collinearity issues, the researchers computed the model evaluations depicted in Fig. 2. The endogenous constructs’ (quit intentions and life satisfaction) R2 coefficients of determination were found to be significant at 46 and 45.5 percent respectively. Notably, research in the social sciences typically regard R2 values of 0.20 and higher as relevant (Diamantopoulos, 2008; Hair, J. F., et al 2017). The results report that job insecurity and job embeddedness do determine quit intentions and employees’ satisfaction with life.

The findings of our hypothesis are shown in Table 6. The results reveal that JIS negatively affects the job embeddedness level of non-managerial hotel employees (β = -0.750, p < 0.05, LL= -0.856, UL=-0.551). The results indicate that a higher perception of job insecurity adversely affects their level of embeddedness with their organizations. Therefore, hypothesis 1 was accepted. The relationship of JE with LS was significantly positive (β =0.675, p < 0.05, LL= 0.520, UL=0.857). However, the relationship of JE with QI was found to be significantly negative (β =-0.678, p < 0.05, LL= -0.806, UL=-0.482). This implies that employees who are deeply entrenched in their organizations display lower quit intentions. Therefore, hypotheses 2 and 3 were also accepted. Additionally, a complementary partially mediating effects of job embeddedness was found between JIS with LS (β =-0.506, p < 0.05, LL= -0.625, UL=-0.384) and QI (β =0.509, p < 0.05, LL= 0.312, UL=0.651) of non-managerial hotel employees which provides an empirical evidence for H4a and b. Particularly, employees who are higher on job insecurity are less committed to their jobs and such employees display higher quit intentions. Subsequently, such employees’ life satisfaction is generally low. Therefore, all hypotheses were accepted.

Table6: Structural model assessment.

Source: Compilation of authors’ work derived from primary data.

Note/(s)- JIS: job insecurity, JEM: job embeddedness, LST: life satisfaction, QIT: quit intentions. Structural model assessments Source: Author’s own calculations.

Most research in the field primarily explores the connections between job embeddedness and work-related outcomes beneficial to organizations. However, this study diverges by concentrating on individual-based outcomes, i.e., employees' life satisfaction. This shift aims to rectify a disparity in existing job embeddedness research. This study has its significant contribution in several crucial areas. It introduces valuable conceptual foundations for comprehending the connections between job insecurity and job embeddedness, and its impacts on both life satisfaction and quit intentions amongst hotel employees. This contribution is achieved through a synthesis of theories and previous research findings. Furthermore, by conducting empirical investigations involving non-managerial hotel employees, this study extends the existing empirical evidence on job embeddedness and its effects on individual outcomes.

Analysis of the H1 revealed that job insecurity among non-managerial hotel employees is significantly, but negatively related to job embeddedness. This implies that employees who feel insecure with their jobs have lower levels of job embeddedness. The findings suggest a theoretical connection wherein an employee's perception of job insecurity correlates directly with job embeddedness, which serves as a crucial predictor of employee retention. Employees begin to reconsider their employment and potential career paths within the organization when they perceive the possibility of future job loss or insecurity.  As a result, they no longer feel a connection to the organization, and their values and beliefs no longer match or coincide with those of the firm. However, researchers have found that by working hard, asking for help from co-workers/ colleagues, and using impression management, employees may overcome the feeling of job insecurity (Huang et al., 2013). 

Analysis of H2 showed that job embeddedness positively and significantly affects employees’ satisfaction with life. Individuals who enjoy both their work and their community lives will choose to stay so as to maximise their satisfaction with their lives (Ampofo et al., 2018). Accordingly, employees show satisfaction with their lives if they are deeply entrenched in their place of employment and the community (Ampofo et al., 2018). Analysis of H3 revealed a significant but negative relationship of job embeddedness with quit intentions. Prior studies have shown that employees who are least connected to their organization tend to have high quit intentions (Ampofo & Karatepe 2022; Aboul-Dahab 2022;  Susomrith & Amankwaa 2020).

By perhaps offering the first, empirical evidence on job embeddedness as a mediator, the study adds its valuable contribution to existing studies available on job embeddedness and non-turnover outcomes. As one of the pioneering studies examining the aforementioned relationship, it becomes evident that the researcher's understanding of the subject remains limited. Consequently, further research is imperative to enhance managers' capabilities to positively influence this relationship in practical ways as well as to deepen our understanding of it. Such comprehension is crucial, especially for organizations that care about their workers' quality of life and want to recruit and retain quality employees who frequently find it difficult to balance work and home responsibilities (Roh et al., 2015). Consistent to the result of previous studies (Elshaer & Azazz, 2022; Murphy et al., 2013), analysis of H4a confirmed a complementary partial mediation of job embeddedness between job insecurity and quit intentions. The perception of job insecurity among employees diminishes their attachment to their positions, thereby escalating their quit intentions. Hence, the researcher proposes that future investigations should consider how employees' perceptions of job insecurity affect their job embeddedness, subsequently influencing their decisions to remain with or leave an organization.

Managerial implications and suggestions

The authors recommend that managers should recognize that employees experiencing job insecurity often exhibit weaker attachments to their positions and are less likely to intend to stay with the organization. Such employees not only enhance overall employee turnover but also affects the job performance of existing employees. The performance of individual employees at work significantly impacts the survival and overall performance of the organization. Literature reveals that job insecurity also deteriorates the mental and physical health of employees, hence they develop a negative attitude towards work, which ultimately shows a detrimental effects on their life satisfaction (Chirumbolo et al., 2021). Henceforth, it is advisable for the managers to be watchful and proactive in preventing such insecurity among employees because it may be harmful for the organization's long-term health. Understanding the circumstances surrounding job insecurity and using skilled therapists for employee counselling and advice, are essential to reduce the psychological stress that employees endure.

Employees who are more devoted are less inclined to leave their jobs. When employees leave their jobs, organizations have to incur a significant amount of expenditure on replacement and training costs. Ampofo (2017) suggested several practices in order to help employees embed in their jobs. This includes socialisation practices such as the induction of new employee in organization, practises to promote teambuilding. Such practices make employees connect with their jobs thus reduces actual turnover costs of organizations. Therefore, managers should promote a healthy organizational culture by building an effective workplace environment for employees to retain them in their jobs. It is also advisable to adopt practises that favourably affect employees' views of fit with the organization and community, through which organizations can improve life satisfaction among their workforce. Additionally, managers can improve the fit perception among employees by effectively aligning individuals' talents, knowledge, and abilities with job requirements.

Limitations

This study deals with certain limitations that need to be considered by future researchers. First, we begin by employing the global measure of job embeddedness in this study which does not distinguish between organizational and community elements that could have independent effects on the aforementioned relationships. Future studies must explore composite measure of job embeddedness (Mitchell 2004) to look at both on job and off job aspects independently as mediators. Second, on the same survey, a single rater provided measures for job embeddedness and life satisfaction. As a result, common method biasness may have an impact on the relationships, leading to differences between the "actual" and measured relationships between variables. Nonetheless, to avoid common method biasness future studies should separate the evaluation of job embeddedness from that of life satisfaction. Lastly, the researcher relied on self-reported responses on life satisfaction, which might be biased toward social desirability. To complement self-reports in future research, informant reports of life satisfaction assessments provided by respondents' relatives or even close acquaintances could be used (Diener 1984).

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